CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. Background
of study
Language
is a tool that is most important for communication between humans. In other
words, human beings will depend on a language and remember also that human
beings are social creatures who can not live without the other. In this case
surely there will be an inter-human interaction (communication) for various
purposes.
In
essence, learning a language is learning to communicate. Therefore, the
learning of English in schools geared to improve students' ability to
communicate. Language as a means of communication used in a variety of
functions and presented in a meaningful context and not in the form of loose
sentences.
Everyone
cannot avoid communication. Whatever we say, both verbal and non-verbal will be
considered as a message to others who always watch our movements and regard it
as a symbol of what we think that we gain some idea of what other people were
thinking. By studying communication, we can make predictions that are more
organized and structured.
Various
phenomena that appear in practical life will have a big impact on the language.
Often the language rules agreed to change the face of the phenomenon of
language use on a practical level .
Conversations
are essentially oral language events between two participants or more, which
generally occurs in an atmosphere of casual and formal. Conversation is a
container that allows the realization of the principles of pragmatics in
language events. For that we need to understand conversational implicature, so
that what was said can be understood by the opponents said.
One of
part in pragmatics study is about maxim
B. Identification
of Study
A. What
is definition of conversational maxim?
B. What is the definition of manner?
C. What
is violation of the maxim?
D. What
is definition of maxim of manner?
CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL REVIEW
A. Definition
of Conversational Maxim
A conversational maxim is any of
four rules which were proposed by Grice 1975, stating that a speaker is assumed to make a contribution such as :
- Maxim
of quality is adequately but not overly informative
·
Maxim of quality that the speaker does not believe to
be false and for which adequate evidence is had
·
Maxim of relevance says things that are relevant to
the topic under discussion.
·
Maxim of manner is clear, avoid obscurity of
expression, avoid ambiguity, be brief and be orderly[1]
B.
Definition of Manner
Manner
is
a way of doing, being done, or happening; mode of action, occurrence[2].
Manner, as we know, means the way is also included within the scope of
etiquette (manners) because it encompasses manners to the way we behave and
talk with others.[3]
C.
Violation of Maxim
In a
conversation, a speaker and a hearer are supposed to respond to each other in
their turn and exchange with the needed information that benefits both of them.[4]
By giving the required information, they can understand each other’s utterances
and their conversations become smooth. The speaker and the hearer are said to
have fulfilled the Cooperative Principle when they manage to achieve a successful
conversation.
According
to Grice (1975, p. 45), Cooperative Principle which consists of four maxims
(maxim of quality, quantity, relevance and manner) are the suggested principles
for the speaker and the hearer to show their cooperation by giving appropriate
contribution in their conversation. By applying Cooperative Principle, the
speaker allows the hearer to draw assumptions about the speaker’s intentions
and the implied meaning. However, people sometimes cannot fulfill those maxims
and they seem to disobey them.
Grice
(as cited in Cutting, 2002) says that when the speaker does not fulfill or obey
the maxims, the speaker is said to “violate” them. Violation is the condition
where the speakers do not purposefully fulfill certain maxim.[5]
When the
speakers do maxim violation, the conversation between the speakers and the
hearers can be unsuccessful since they will misunderstand each other. Speakers
who violate a maxim cause the hearer not to know the truth and only understand
the surface meaning of the speaker’s words. In doing so the speaker can violate
more than one maxim at the same time and the writers later name it as the
multiple violations. For some purposes, people tend to tell a lie. They believe
that a lie is the natural tool to survive and to avoid them from anything that
may pu them in an inappropriate condition (Christoffersen, 2005).[6]
However,
the major purpose for people to tell a lie is that they want to save their
face. Sometimes, when people do something bad, they have no choice but lie to
cover up their secret and to save their face. There are many reasons for people
to lie such as to hide the truth, to please the hearer, or maybe the speaker
envies other people, and many others.
Brown
and Yule (1983, p. 32) give a further description on the conversational maxims
proposed by Grice (1975, p. 45). Maxim of quantity means that speakers should
be as informative as is required, that they should give neither too little
information nor too much. Some speakers like to point to the fact that they
know how much information the hearer requires or can be bothered with. People
who give too little information risk their hearer not to be able to identify
what they are talking about because they are not explicit enough.[7]
On the
other hand, those who give more information than the hearer needs risk boring
them. The effect of this maxim is to present that the statement is the
strongest, or most informative, that can be made in the situation.
The
second maxim is the maxim of quality, which says that speakers are, expected to
be sincere, to be saying something that they believe correspond to reality.
They are assumed not to say anything that they believe to be false or anything
for which they lack evidence. Some speakers like to draw their hearer’s attention
to the fact that they are only saying what they believe to be true, and that
they lack adequate evidence.
The third maxim is the maxim of relevance,
which says that speakers are assumed to be saying something that is relevant to
what has been said before.
While
the fourth maxim is the maxim of manner, which says that speakers should be
brief and orderly, and avoids obscurity and ambiguity. However, no one actually
speaks like that the whole time; each conversation may contain the purpose of
the speakers. These purposes can be good or bad both for the speakers and the
hearers.
Although Grice (1975, p.45) makes guidelines
for the speakers to be cooperative in having conversation, sometimes people may
disobey some maxims in order to achieve their purpose. A speaker can be said to
violate a maxim when they know that the hearer will not know the truth and will
only understand the surface meaning of the words.
If a
speaker violates the maxim of quantity, they do not give the hearer enough
information to know what is being talked about, because they do not want the
hearer to know the full picture. The speaker is not implying anything, they are
“being economical with the truth”, for example:
[The setting: A (a guest) wants to be nicer
and friendlier, he smiles to B (a receptionist) and says hello politely. A dog
comes and stands beside him.
Then A
asks B:]
A : Does
your dog bite?
B : No
A :
(bends down to stroke it and gets bitten) Ow! You said your dog does not bite!
B : That
is not my dog.
(Cutting,
2002, p. 40)
B
actually knows that A is talking about the dog which is beside B and not B’s
dog at home, yet B intentionally does not give A enough information, for
reasons best known to A herself. If a speaker violates maxim of quality, they
are not being sincere and giving the hearer the wrong information.
In the real life situation, many people tend to
tell lie and break the rules of Grice’s Cooperative Principle (1975, p. 45)
when they communicate. They even do multiple violations for lying purposes.
This is pictured in an American movie series on television entitled Desperate
Housewives. It is an interesting film since it combines elements of drama,
comedy, mystery, thriller, farce, soap opera and satire (Desperate Housewives,
n.d.) It is about the life of four American housewives who live in the same
neighborhood. They are desperate in their life because of love, betrayals,
scandals, and conflicts among themselves. Therefore, they often lie to each
other. This means that they often violate the maxims in their lies and do
multiple violations to smooth them in which each lie seems to have purposes
behind.
The data were collected by identifying the
conversations that contained lies based on Conversational Maxims suggested by
Grice (1975), classifying the violations of maxims per episode and per
character into tables, and finding the reason of the speaker who violated more
than one maxim. Markers of violation were set up based on Cooperative Principle
suggested by Grice (1975, p. 45).
D. Definition of Maxim of Manner
The maxim
of manner thus relates "not [...] to what is said but, rather, to
HOW what is said to be said [...]" (Grice 1975: 46).[8]
Maxim of Manner requires
the speaker to avoid obscurity of expression and ambiguity. Maxim of manner
demands the speaker to be brief and orderly.
An
elaboration of the Gricean maxim of manner was proposed by Leech (1983: 100),
who distinguishes two kinds of clarity: "One kind consists in making
unambiguous use of syntax and phonology of the language in order to construct a
clear text. Another type [...] consists in framing a clear message, ie a
message which is perspicuous or intelligible in the sense of conveying the
intended illocutionary goal to the addressee."[9]
The maxim of manner is
one of the Gricean conversational maxims which
constitute the Cooperative Principle. It makes the following requirements:
§ ‘Be
perspicuous’
§ Avoid
obscurity of expression
§ Avoid
ambiguity
§ Be brief
(avoid unnecessary prolixity)
§ Be orderly
Levinson (2000) distinguishes between
minimization of content and minimization of form where general and shorter
expressions are favored. He states a 'Q-' and an 'I-principle'.[10]
§ Q:
"Do not provide a statement that is informationally weaker than your
knowledge of the world allows, unless providing a stronger statement would
contravene the I-principle." (Levinson 2000: 76)
§ I:
"Say as little as necessary, that is produce the minimal linguistic
information sufficient to achieve your communicational ends (bearing the
Q-principal in mind)." (Levinson 2000: 114)
For example :
Q: What did
Laura do when she heard that Lauri’s boat had arrived?
A: Laura jumped and ran to the pier.
A: Laura jumped and ran to the pier.
One finds
this conversation normal. Why? Because the Maxim is observed.
P1: Laura
ran to the pier.
P2: Laura jumped.
Logically, P1 & P2 = P2 & P1
P2: Laura jumped.
Logically, P1 & P2 = P2 & P1
The
other example :
A: Where was Alfred
yesterday?
B: Alfred went to the store and bought some whiskey.
In the example, B’s answer obeys the manner maxim: be orderly, because she gives a clear explanation where A was.
Lavinson (1983:103) stated that Grice’s maxims above specify what participants have to do in order to converse in a maximally efficient, rational, cooperative way: the participant should speak sincerely, relevantly, and clearly while providing sufficient information.
B: Alfred went to the store and bought some whiskey.
In the example, B’s answer obeys the manner maxim: be orderly, because she gives a clear explanation where A was.
Lavinson (1983:103) stated that Grice’s maxims above specify what participants have to do in order to converse in a maximally efficient, rational, cooperative way: the participant should speak sincerely, relevantly, and clearly while providing sufficient information.
CHAPTER
III
WRITING
METHOD
A.
Introduction
Introduction
Is the first chapter of papers that introduce the reader to be able to answer
the question of what is being investigated. For what and why the research was
conducted. Therefore, this introductory chapter basically contained: Background
of the study and Identifications of study.
B.
Theoretical
Review
The
theoretical review is a set of definitions, concepts which have been prepared
neatly and systematically about the variables in a study. The theoretical basis
will be a solifoundation in an'll do.
C.
Writing
Method
Writing
methods is the procedure on how a research would be conducted. .Writing methods is also a particular procedure for accomplishing
or approaching something, especially a systematic or established one.
D.
Discussion
A speechor piece of writing that gives
information, ideas, opinions, about something.
E.
Conclusion
Conclusion of the study is a brief statement of
the results of the analysis of the description and discussion of the results of
testing the hypothesis that has been done in the previous Chapter.
Conclusion contains answers to
questions on the part of the formulation all of the problem answers only focused
on the scope of the questions and answers amount is adjusted for the
formulation of the problem posed.
CHAPTER
IV
DISCUSSION
The Maxim of Manner
The maxim of manner in the cooperative principle of
Grice requires that each participant are always greeted speak directly, clearly
and the message should not be ambiguous or obscure it (Rahardi, 2003:31).[11]
So, the contribution should be giving clear message to the hearer, not contain
an ambiguous message, be brief and be orderly.
In order to make a clear interpretation about these
maxims, Grice lists briefly one such analogue for each conversational category
and give relevant contribution to what Grice regards as a fundamental question
about the Cooperative Principle and its attendant maxim (Grice, 1989: 28).
Violating Maxim of Manner
When the
speakers do maxim violation, the conversation between the speakers and the
hearers can be unsuccessful since they will misunderstand each other. Speakers
who violate a maxim cause the hearer not to know the truth and only understand
the surface meaning of the speaker’s words. In doing so the speaker can violate
more than one maxim at the same time and the writers later name it as the
multiple violations. For some purposes, people tend to tell a lie. They believe
that a lie is the natural tool to survive and to avoid them from anything that
may pu them in an inappropriate condition (Christoffersen, 2005).
However,
the major purpose for people to tell a lie is that they want to save their
face. Sometimes, when people do something bad, they have no choice but lie to
cover up their secret and to save their face. There are many reasons for people
to lie such as to hide the truth, to please the hearer, or maybe the speaker
envies other people, and many others.
The
criteria of violation of maxim of manner used as distinguished guidelines Maxim
Violating the maxims:
• If the
speaker uses ambiguous language
· If the speakers say unnecessary thing
• If the
speaker exaggerates thing
• If the
speaker uses slang in front of people who do not understand it
• If the
speaker’s voice is not loud enough
Example
:
§ A: I hear
you went to the opera last night; how was the lead singer?
§ B: The
singer produced a series of sounds corresponding closely to the score of an
aria from 'Rigoletto'. (Levinson 1983)
B flouts the maxim of manner, as the sentence is
unnecessarily prolix.
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION
Maxim of Manner requires
the speaker to avoid obscurity of expression and ambiguity. Maxim of manner
demands the speaker to be brief and orderly. Lavinson (1983:103) stated that
Grice’s maxims above specify what participants have to do in order to converse
in a maximally efficient, rational, cooperative way: the participant should
speak sincerely, relevantly, and clearly while providing sufficient
information.
The maxim of manner in the cooperative principle of
Grice requires that each participant are always greeted speak directly, clearly
and the message should not be ambiguous or obscure it (Rahardi, 2003:31).[12]
So, the contribution should be giving clear message to the hearer, not contain
an ambiguous message, be brief and be orderly.
In order to make a clear interpretation about these
maxims, Grice lists briefly one such analogue for each conversational category
and give relevant contribution to what Grice regards as a fundamental question
about the Cooperative Principle and its attendant maxim (Grice, 1989: 28).
When the
speakers do maxim violation, the conversation between the speakers and the
hearers can be unsuccessful since they will misunderstand each other. Speakers
who violate a maxim cause the hearer not to know the truth and only understand
the surface meaning of the speaker’s words. In doing so the speaker can violate
more than one maxim at the same time and the writers later name it as the
multiple violations. For some purposes, people tend to tell a lie. They believe
that a lie is the natural tool to survive and to avoid them from anything that
may pu them in an inappropriate condition (Christoffersen, 2005).
The
criteria of violation of maxim of manner used as distinguished guidelines Maxim
Violating the maxims:
• If the
speaker uses ambiguous language
· If the speakers say unnecessary thing
• If the
speaker exaggerates thing
• If the
speaker uses slang in front of people who do not understand it
• If the
speaker’s voice is not loud enough
REFERENCE
Grice, H.P. (1975). Logic and conversation. In: P. Cole and J.L.
Morgan (eds.), Syntax and Semantics 3: Speech Act. New York: Academic
Press. p.41-58
Chaniago, Sam Mukhtar. 2008. Materi
Pokok Pragmatik. Jakarta: Universitas Terbuks.p.31
Crowley, D., & Mitchell,
D. (1994). Communication theory today.
Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.p.140
Cutting, J. (2002).
Pragmatics and discourse: A resource book for students.Routledge: London and
New York.p.40
Christoffersen,
D. (2005). The shameless liar’s guide. Sourcebooks
Brown, G., & Yule, G. (1983).
Discourse analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.p.32
Leech,
G. (1983/1995). Principle of Pragmatics. 9th edition. London: Longman.p.100
Levinson,
S. (2000). Presumptive Meanings – The Theory of Generalized Conversational
Implicature. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Rahardi,
Kunjaga. 2003. Berkenalan Dengan Ilmu Bahasa Pragmatik. Malang:
Dioma
[1] Grice, H.P. (1975). Logic and conversation. In: P. Cole and J.L.
Morgan (eds.), Syntax and Semantics 3: Speech Act. New York: Academic
Press. p.41-58
[3]
Chaniago, Sam Mukhtar. 2008. Materi Pokok Pragmatik. Jakarta:
Universitas Terbuks.p.31
[4] Crowley, D., &
Mitchell, D. (1994). Communication theory
today. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.p.140
[5] Cutting, J. (2002).
Pragmatics and discourse: A resource book for students.Routledge: London and
New York.p.40
[6]
Christoffersen, D. (2005). The shameless liar’s guide. Sourcebooks.
[7]
Brown, G., & Yule, G. (1983). Discourse analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.p.32
[8]
Op,Cit.
Grice. P.46
[10]
Levinson,
S. (2000). Presumptive Meanings – The Theory of Generalized Conversational
Implicature. Cambridge: MIT Press.
[11]
Rahardi, Kunjaga. 2003. Berkenalan Dengan Ilmu Bahasa Pragmatik.
Malang: Dioma
[12]
Rahardi, Kunjaga. 2003. Berkenalan Dengan Ilmu Bahasa Pragmatik.
Malang: Dioma
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